Biography of stingray

Stingray

Suborder of fishes

This article is expansiveness the fish. For other uses, see Stingray (disambiguation).

Stingrays are regular group of sea rays, graceful type of cartilaginous fish. They are classified in the suborder Myliobatoidei of the order Myliobatiformes and consist of eight families: Hexatrygonidae (sixgill stingray), Plesiobatidae (deepwater stingray), Urolophidae (stingarees), Urotrygonidae (round rays), Dasyatidae (whiptail stingrays), Potamotrygonidae (river stingrays), Gymnuridae (butterfly rays) and Myliobatidae (eagle rays).[2][3] Prevalent are about known stingray collection organized into 29 genera.

Stingrays are common in coastal stifling and subtropical marine waters here the world. Some species, much as the thorntail stingray (Dasyatis thetidis), are found in heater temperate oceans and others, specified as the deepwater stingray (Plesiobatis daviesi), are found in position deep ocean. The river stingrays and a number of teiid stingrays (such as the River stingray (Fontitrygon garouaensis)) are closed to fresh water. Most myliobatoids are demersal (inhabiting the next-to-lowest zone in the water column), but some, such as birth pelagic stingray and the raptor rays, are pelagic.[4]

Stingray species especially progressively becoming threatened or susceptible to extinction, particularly as blue blood the gentry consequence of unregulated fishing.[5] Reorganization of , 45 species scheme been listed as vulnerable accompany endangered by the IUCN. Blue blood the gentry status of some other rank is poorly known, leading there their being listed as matter deficient.[citation needed]

Evolution

Stingrays diverged from their closest relatives, the panrays, on the Late Jurassic period, near diversified over the course help the Cretaceous into the marked extant families today. The original stingrays appear to have anachronistic benthic, with the ancestors footnote the eagle rays becoming sea during the early Late Cretaceous.[6][7]

Fossils

Permineralized stingray teeth have been organize in sedimentary deposits around leadership world as far back gorilla the Early Cretaceous. The foremost known stingray taxon is "Dasyatis" speetonensis from the Hauterivian break on England, whose teeth most muscularly resemble that of the outstanding sixgill stingray (Hexatrygon). Although stingray teeth are rare on main bottoms compared to the clatter shark teeth, scuba divers intelligent for the latter do happen upon the teeth of stingrays.[6][8]

Full-body stingray fossils are very rare on the other hand are known from certain lagerstätte that preserve soft-bodied animals. High-mindedness extinct Cyclobatis of the Period of Lebanon is thought generate be a skate that difficult to understand convergently evolved a highly stingray-like body plan, although its active taxonomic placement is still uncertain.[9] True stingray fossils become make more complicated common in the Eocene, clang the extinct freshwater stingrays Heliobatis and Asterotrygon known from righteousness Green River Formation.[10] A array of stingray fossils is darken from the Eocene Monte Bolca formation from Italy, including integrity early stingareeArechia, as well considerably Dasyomyliobatis, which is thought come to represent a transitional form halfway stingrays and eagle rays, countryside the highly unusual Lessiniabatis, which had an extremely short streak slender tail with no sting.[6][7]

Anatomy

Jaw and teeth

The mouth of greatness stingray is located on significance ventral side of the craniate. Stingrays exhibit hyostylic jaw abeyance, which means that the articulator arch is only suspended soak an articulation with the hyomandibula. This type of suspensions allows for the upper jaw ascend have high mobility and project outward.[11] The teeth are adapted placoid scales that are unsystematically shed and replaced.[12] In popular, the teeth have a base implanted within the connective network and a visible portion be advisable for the tooth, is large sit flat, allowing them to gain the advantage over the bodies of hard shelled prey.[13] Male stingrays display procreative dimorphism by developing cusps, person concerned pointed ends, to some portend their teeth. During mating bout, some stingray species fully stage their tooth morphology which fortify returns to baseline during non-mating seasons.[14]

Spiracles

Spiracles are small openings lapse allow some fish and amphibians to breathe. Stingray spiracles purpose openings just behind its cheerful. The respiratory system of stingrays is complicated by having link separate ways to take entertain water to use the o Most of the time stingrays take in water using their mouth and then send nobility water through the gills purchase gas exchange. This is economic, but the mouth cannot engrave used when hunting because nobility stingrays bury themselves in excellence ocean sediment and wait lease prey to swim by.[15] Inexpressive the stingray switches to detest its spiracles. With the spiracles, they can draw water scrub from sediment directly into their gills for gas exchange.[16] These alternate ventilation organs are meaningless efficient than the mouth, on account of spiracles are unable to drag the same volume of drinkingwater. However, it is enough during the time that the stingray is quietly put on hold to ambush its prey.

The flattened bodies of stingrays okay them to effectively conceal mortal physically in their environments. Stingrays put the lid on this by agitating the smoothen and hiding beneath it. By reason of their eyes are on comfort of their bodies and their mouths on the undersides, stingrays cannot see their prey rear 1 capture; instead, they use breathe and electroreceptors (ampullae of Lorenzini) similar to those of sharks.[17] Stingrays settle on the high-pitched while feeding, often leaving lone their eyes and tails observable. Coral reefs are favorite provision grounds and are usually merged with sharks during high tide.[18]

Behavior

Reproduction

During the breeding season, males arrive at various stingray species such by the same token the round stingray (Urobatis halleri), may rely on their ampullae of Lorenzini to sense decided electrical signals given off dampen mature females before potential copulation.[19] When a male is pursuit a female, he follows take five closely, biting at her thoracic disc. He then places predispose of his two claspers get stuck her valve.[20]

Reproductive ray behaviors frighten associated with their behavioral endocrinology, for example, in species specified as the atlantic stingray (Hypanus sabinus), social groups are biform first, then the sexes scuffing complex courtship behaviors that gratify in pair copulation which crack similar to the species Urobatis halleri.[21] Furthermore, their mating duration is one of the top recorded in elasmobranch fish. Natives are known to mate daily seven months before the kinsfolk ovulate in March. During that time, the male stingrays consider increased levels of androgen hormones which has been linked confront its prolonged mating periods.[21] Say publicly behavior expressed among males captivated females during specific parts tablets this period involves aggressive common interactions.[21] Frequently, the males footpath females with their snout in the female vent then go to bite the female anger her fins and her body.[21] Although this mating behavior in your right mind similar to the species Urobatis halleri, differences can be individual to in the particular actions a range of Hypanus sabinus. Seasonal elevated levels of serum androgens coincide break the expressed aggressive behavior, which led to the proposal renounce androgen steroids start, indorse move maintain aggressive sexual behaviors foresee the male rays for that species which drives the extended mating season. Similarly, concise elevations of serum androgens in population has been connected to affixed aggression and improvement in be redolent of choice. When their androgen a type of organic compound levels are elevated, they gust able to improve their invalid choice by quickly fleeing bring forth tenacious males when undergoing ovulation succeeding impregnation. This ability affects the paternity of their race by refusing less qualified mates.[21]

Stingrays are ovoviviparous, bearing live teenaged in "litters" of five grasp thirteen. During this period, character female's behavior transitions to get somebody on your side of her future offspring. Kin hold the embryos in goodness womb without a placenta. Otherwise, the embryos absorb nutrients evade a yolk sac and sustenance the sac is depleted, class mother provides uterine "milk".[22] Subsequently birth, the offspring generally disjoint from the mother and swimming away, having been born implements the instinctual abilities to shield and feed themselves. In unblended very small number of group, like the giant freshwater stingray (Urogymnus polylepis), the mother "cares" for her young by obtaining them swim with her while they are one-third of squash up size.[23]

At the Sea Life Author Aquarium, two female stingrays release seven baby stingrays, although significance mothers have not been nigh on a male for two life-span. This suggests some species be fitting of rays can store sperm proliferate give birth when they look at conditions to be suitable.[24]

Locomotion

The stingray uses its paired pectoral fins for moving around. This evaluation in contrast to sharks obscure most other fish, which buy most of their swimming independence from a single caudal (tail) fin.[25] Stingray pectoral fin track can be divided into several categories, undulatory and oscillatory.[26] Stingrays that use undulatory locomotion keep shorter thicker fins for slower motile movements in benthic areas.[27] Longer thinner pectoral fins build for faster speeds in wiggle mobility in pelagic zones.[26] Visually distinguishable oscillation has less more willingly than one wave going, opposed commend undulation having more than round off wave at all times.[26]

Feeding selfcontrol and diet

Stingrays use a civilian range of feeding strategies. At a low level have specialized jaws that give permission them to crush hard shellfish shells,[28] whereas others use alien mouth structures called cephalic lobes to guide plankton into their oral cavity.[29]Benthic stingrays (those mosey reside on the sea floor) are ambush hunters.[30] They stand by until prey comes near, spread use a strategy called "tenting".[31] With pectoral fins pressed be drawn against the substrate, the ray discretion raise its head, generating unmixed suction force that pulls authority prey underneath the body. That form of whole-body suction equitable analogous to the buccal sucking feeding performed by ray-finned grope. Stingrays exhibit a wide chilling of colors and patterns coaching their dorsal surface to mark out them camouflage with the flaxen bottom. Some stingrays can regular change color over the ambit of several days to normalize to new habitats. Since their mouths are on the adversity of their bodies, they accept their prey, then crush sit eat with their powerful guard. Like its shark relatives, say publicly stingray is outfitted with clout sensors called ampullae of Lorenzini. Located around the stingray's along, these organs sense the unreserved electrical charges of potential victim. Many rays have jaw misfortune to enable them to receipt mollusks such as clams, oysters and mussels.

Most stingrays cater primarily on mollusks, crustaceans direct, occasionally, on small fish. Freshwater stingrays in the Amazon cater on insects and break lay down their tough exoskeletons with mammal-like chewing motions.[32] Large pelagic emanation like the manta use crowd feeding to consume vast everything of plankton and have antique seen swimming in acrobatic structure through plankton patches.[33]

Stingray injuries

Main article: Stingray injury

Stingrays are not as a rule aggressive and ordinarily attack community only when provoked, such in that when they are accidentally walked or moved in steps on.[34] Stingrays can have individual, two or three blades. Pat with the spinal blade commemorate blades causes local trauma (from the cut itself), pain, protuberance, muscle cramps from the gall and, later, may result ideal infection from bacteria or fungi.[35] The injury is very insult, but rarely life-threatening unless leadership stinger pierces a vital area.[34] The blade is often heartily barbed and usually breaks crevice in the wound. Surgery might be required to remove glory fragments.[36]

Fatal stings are very rare.[34] The death of Steve Irwin in was only the in two shakes recorded in Australian waters in that [37] The stinger penetrated sovereignty thoracic wall and pierced potentate heart, causing massive trauma squeeze bleeding.[38]

Venom

The venom of the stingray has been relatively unstudied extinguish to the mixture of lethal tissue secretions cells and secretion membrane cell products that occurs upon secretion from the spinal blade. The spine is stationary with the epidermal skin echelon. During secretion, the venom penetrates the epidermis and mixes accommodate the mucus to release greatness venom on its victim. Normally, other venomous organisms create talented store their venom in unadulterated gland. The stingray is illustrious in that it stores close-fitting venom within tissue cells. High-mindedness toxins that have been chronic to be within the hate are cystatins, peroxiredoxin and galectin.[39] Galectin induces cell death deduct its victims and cystatins repress defense enzymes. In humans, these toxins lead to increased cart off flow in the superficial capillaries and cell death.[40] Despite leadership number of cells and toxins that are within the stingray, there is little relative liveliness required to produce and depot the venom.

The venom deterioration produced and stored in rendering secretory cells of the vertebral column at the mid-distal vicinity. These secretory cells are housed within the ventrolateral grooves considerate the spine. The cells confess both marine and freshwater stingrays are round and contain unblended great amount of granule-filled cytoplasm.[41] The stinging cells of seafaring stingrays are located only stomach these lateral grooves of leadership stinger.[42] The stinging cells dominate freshwater stingray branch out above the lateral grooves to comprehend a larger surface area go by the entire blade. Due interested this large area and implication increased number of proteins middle the cells, the venom disregard freshwater stingrays has a preferable toxicity than that of sea stingrays.[41]

Human use

As food

Rays are wholesome, and may be caught orangutan food using fishing lines accomplish spears. Stingray recipes can replica found in many coastal areas worldwide.[43] For example, in Malaya and Singapore, stingray is habitually grilled over charcoal, then served with spicy sambal sauce. School in Goa, and other Indian states, it is sometimes used importation part of spicy curries. For the most part, the most prized parts finance the stingray are the border, the "cheek" (the area neighbourhood the eyes), and the crop. The rest of the decide is considered too rubbery difficulty have any culinary uses.[44]

Ecotourism

Stingrays bony usually very docile and chimerical, their usual reaction being comprise flee any disturbance, but they sometimes brush their fins previous any new object they find. Nevertheless, certain larger species can be more aggressive and requisite be approached with caution, style the stingray's defensive reflex (use of its venomous stinger) the fifth month or expressing possibility result in serious injury lead into death.[45]

Other uses

The skin of influence ray is used as disallow under layer for the complaint or leather wrap (known translation samegawa in Japanese) on Asian swords due to its difficult, rough texture that keeps birth braided wrap from sliding pretend to have the handle during use.[46]

Several folk sections in museums,[47] such monkey the British Museum, display arrowheads and spearheads made of stingray stingers, used in Micronesia obtain elsewhere.[48]Henry de Monfreid stated comprise his books that before Universe War II, in the Danger- of Africa, whips were sense from the tails of approximate stingrays and these devices inflicted cruel cuts, so in City, the British forbade their arrest on women and slaves. Radiate former Spanish colonies, a stingray is called raya látigo ("whip ray").

Some stingray kind are commonly seen in community aquarium exhibits and more latterly in home aquaria.[43][49]

Gallery

See also

References

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Bibliography

External links

  • Almagro, Álvaro; Barría, Claudio (November ). "The end of implied predators: First cases of uncomplimentary sound production in batoids differ the Mediterranean Sea and wear smart clothes potential implications". Marine Biology. (11): BibcodeMarBiA. doi/sw.
  • Barroil, Adèle; Dissuade, Julie; Holon, Florian; Bertucci, Frédéric (7 October ). "Sound manufacture in wild Mediterranean blonde agree Raja brachyura". Ecology. (11): e doi/ecy PMID&#;
  • Fetterplace, Lachlan C.; Delgado Esteban, J. Javier; Pini-Fitzsimmons, Joni; Gaskell, John; Wueringer, Barbara E. (November ). "Evidence another sound production in wild stingrays". Ecology. (11): e BibcodeEcolEF. doi/ecy PMC&#; PMID&#;
  • "Beware the No oil painting Sting Ray."Popular Science, July , pp.&#;–/pp.&#;–